Red: the color of Peru
Keywords:
carotenoids, flavonoids, color chemistry, natural productsAbstract
The red color is characteristic of the symbols and emblems of Peru. It is not only present in the national flag, but is also characteristic of its national bird (Rupicola peruviana) and flower (Cantua buxifolia). Their color is due to the structural characteristics of organic substances belonging to the family of carotenoids and flavonoids. Apart from their use as colorants and pigments, these compounds also find diverse applications in pharmaceuticals and nutrition due to their antioxidant properties. This review details the specific compounds that give rise to the red color of the most representative plants and animals of Peru. The presence of unique substances not observed in other species is also highlighted.
Downloads
References
(1) Velarde Laos, E.; González, A. El Color y Su Constitucion Quimica. Rev. Química 1996, 10 (2), 225–245. https://revistas.pucp.edu.pe/index.php/quimica/article/view/5039
(2) Cerrón-Infantes, D. A.; Unterlass, M. M. Síntesis Ecoamigables de Colorantes. Rev. Química 2018, 32 (1), 18–31. https://revistas.pucp.edu.pe/index.php/quimica/article/view/20342
(3) Callahan, S. P.; Ledgerwood, A. On the Psychological Function of Flags and Logos: Group Identity Symbols Increase Perceived Entitativity. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 2016, 110 (4), 528–550. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000047
(4) Beltrán‐Suito, R. Sorprendentemente Verdes: El Cobre y Sus Pigmentos. Rev. Química 2012, 26 (1–2), 13–15. https://revistas.pucp.edu.pe/index.php/quimica/article/view/7309
(5) Britton, G. The Biochemistry of Natural Pigments; Cambridge University Press, 1983. https://doi.org/10.1016/0307-4412(85)90160-8
(6) Flores B., E.; Paredes, C.R.; Ochoa Luna, R. Química Del Color. Rev. Química 1995, 9, 99–109. https://revistas.pucp.edu.pe/index.php/quimica/article/view/5551
(7) Dager Alva, J. Historiografía y Nación En El Perú Del Siglo XIX; Fondo Editorial de la Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú: Lima, 2009. https://repositorio.pucp.edu.pe/index/bitstream/handle/123456789/173115/Historiograf%C3%ADa%20y%20naci%C3%B3n%20en%20el%20Per%C3%BA%20del%20siglo%20XIX.pdf?sequence=1
(8) Congreso de la República del Perú. Ley N° 30630.- Ley Que Autoriza El Uso e Izamiento de La Bandera Nacional y Dispone La Conformación Del Comité Intersectorial Para La Difusión de Los Emblemas Nacionales; 2017. https://busquedas.elperuano.pe/normaslegales/ley-que-autoriza-el-uso-e-izamiento-de-la-bandera-nacional-y-ley-n-30630-1550559-3/
(9) Majluf, N. Los Fabricantes de Emblemas. Los Símbolos Nacionales En La Transición Republicana. Perú, 1820-1825.
(10) Juárez Uribe, J. C. Los Símbolos Patrios La Reminescencia de Lo Colonial, Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, 2018. http://tesis.pucp.edu.pe/repositorio/handle/20.500.12404/12164
(11) Valdelomar, A. El Sueño de San Martín. La Prensa. Lima 1917.
(12) Junta Militar de Gobierno. Decreto-Ley N° 11323.- Disposiciones Que Deberán Observarse Respecto a Los Símbolos de La Nación: Escudo Nacional, Gran Sello Del Estados, Bandera Nacional, Pabellón Nacional, Estandarte y Escarapela Nacional; 1950.
(13) Chiale, M. C.; Pagano, L. G.; Roesler, I. Nuevas Localidades Para La Parina Grande Phoenicoparrus Andinus. Nuestras Aves 2015, 60, 46–47. https://ri.conicet.gov.ar/handle/11336/51409
(14) Flamingos: Behavior, Biology, and Relationship with Humans; Anderson, M. J., Ed.; Nova Science Publishers: New York, 2017.
(15) Prum, R. O.; LaFountain, A. M.; Berro, J.; Stoddard, M. C.; Frank, H. A. Molecular Diversity, Metabolic Transformation, and Evolution of Carotenoid Feather Pigments in Cotingas (Aves: Cotingidae). J. Comp. Physiol. B Biochem. Syst. Environ. Physiol. 2012, 182 (8), 1095–1116. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00360-012-0677-4
(16) Leidinger, W. ¿Por Qué Pica El Ají? Notas Químicas Sobre El Ají. Rev. Química 2020, 34 (1–2), 22–27. https://revistas.pucp.edu.pe/index.php/quimica/article/view/22688
(17) Hassan, N. M.; Yusof, N. A.; Yahaya, A. F.; Rozali, N. N. M.; Oth¬man, R. Carotenoids of Capsicum Fruits: Pigment Profile and Health-Promoting Functional Attributes. Antioxidants 2019, 8 (10), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox8100469
(18) Armstrong, G. A.; Hearst, J. E. Genetics and Molecular Biology of Carotenoid Pigment Biosynthesis. FASEB J. 1996, 10 (2), 228–237. https://doi.org/10.1096/fasebj.10.2.8641556
(19) Prum, R. O.; Rice, N. H.; Mobley, J. A.; Dimmick, W. W. A Preliminary Phylogenetic Hypothesis for the Cotingas (Cotingidae) Based on Mitochondrial DNA. Auk 2000, 117 (1), 236–241. https://doi.org/10.1093/auk/117.1.236
(20) Crozier, G. F. Carotenoids of Seven Species of Sebastodes. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 1967, 23 (1), 179–184. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-406X(67)90486-0
(21) Olson J. A. Vitamin A and Carotenoids as Antioxidants in a Physiological Context. J. Nutr. Sci. Vitaminol. (Tokyo). 1993, 39 (Supplement), S57–S65. https://doi.org/10.3177/jnsv.39.Supplement_S57
(22) Stahl, W.; Sies, H. Antioxidant Activity of Carotenoids. Mol. Aspects Med. 2003, 24 (6), 345–351. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0098-2997(03)00030-X
(23) Cooper D.A. Carotenoids in Health and Disease: Recent Scientific Evaluations, Research Recommendations and the Consumer. J. Nutr. 2004, 134(1), 221S-224S. https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/134.1.221S
(24) Wackenroder, H. Ueber Das Oleum Radicis Dauci Aetherum, Das Carotin, Den Carotenzucker Und Den Officinellen Succus Dauci; so Wie Auch Über Das Mannit, Welches in Dem Möhrensafte Durch Eine Besondere Art Der Gährung Gebildet Wird. Geigers Mag. der Pharm. 1831, 33, 144–172.
(25) Britton G, Liaaen-Jensen S, Pfander H, eds. Carotenoids. Basel: Birkhäuser Basel; 2004. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-0348-7836-4
(26) Bustamante, D. E.; Hughey, J. R.; Mendoza, J. E.; Tineo, D.; Perez, J.; Oliva, M.; Leiva, S.; Calderon, M. S. The Complete Mitochondrial Genome of the National Bird of Peru: Rupicola Peruvianus (Aves, Passeriformes, Cotingidae). Mitochondrial DNA Part B 2019, 4 (2), 3975–3976.. https://doi.org/10.1080/23802359.2019.1688721
(27) Mahecha, L.; Villabona, N.; Sierra, L.; Ocampo, D.; Laverde-R., O. The Andean Cock-of-the-Rock (Rupicola Peruvianus) Is a Frugivorous Bird Predator. Wilson J. Ornithol. 2018, 130 (2), 558–560. https://doi.org/10.1676/17-005.1
(28) Monfils, A. K.; Prather, L. A. The Conserved Nature and Taxonomic Utility of Pollen Morphology in Cantua (Polemoniaceae). Grana 2004, 43 (4), 249–256. https://doi.org/10.1080/00173130410016760
(29) Paniger-Zambrana N.Y.; Bussmann, R. W., Echeverría, J.; Ethnobotany of Mountain Regions: Andes – Bolivia, Chile, Peru. En Ethnobotany of the Andes; Paniagua-Zambrana, N. Y., Bussmann, R. W., Eds. Springer International Publishing: Cham, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28933-1_2
(30) Landis, J. B.; Bell, C. D.; Hernandez, M.; Zenil-Ferguson, R.; McCa¬rthy, E. W.; Soltis, D. E.; Soltis, P. S. Evolution of Floral Traits and Impact of Reproductive Mode on Diversification in the Phlox Family (Polemoniaceae). Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 2018, 127 (June), 878–890. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ympev.2018.06.035
(31) Smith. D.M.; Glennie, C.W.; Harborne J.B., Williams, C.A. Flavonoid diversification in the polemoniaceae. Biochem. Syst. Ecol. 1977, 5(2):107-115. https://doi.org/10.1016/0305-1978(77)90038-2
(32) Harborne, J. B.; Smith, D. M. Correlations between Anthocyanin Chemistry and Pollination Ecology in the Polemoniaceae. Biochem. Syst. Ecol. 1978, 6 (2), 127–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/0305-1978(78)90038-8
(33) Panche A.N.; Diwan A.D.; Chandra S.R. Flavonoids: an overview. J Nutr Sci. 2016;5:e47. https://doi.org/10.1017/jns.2016.41
(34) Griesbach R.J. Biochemistry and Genetics of Flower Color. In: Plant Breeding Reviews. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd; 2005:89-114. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470650301.ch4
(35) Rauter, A. P.; Lopes, R. G.; Martins, A. C -Glycosylflavonoids: Identification, Bioactivity and Synthesis. Nat. Prod. Commun. 2007, 2 (11), 1934578X0700201. https://doi.org/10.1177/1934578X0700201125
(36) Olivas-Aguirre, F.J.; Rodrigo-García, J.; Martínez-Ruiz, N.D.R.; Cárdenas-Robles, A.I.; Mendoza-Díaz, S.O.; Álvarez-Parrilla, E.; González-Aguilar, G.A.; De la Rosa, L.A.; Ramos-Jiménez, A.; Wall-Medrano, A. Cyanidin-3-O-glucoside: Physical-Chemistry, Foodomics and Health Effects. Molecules 2016, 21, 1264. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules21091264
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2021 Rodrigo Beltrán-Suito
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
